Perceived ethnic discrimination and school connectedness among adolescents in Finland: Role of family background and sex
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12928/jehcp.v10i2.20029Abstract
The study investigates the effect of immigrant background and sex on perceived ethnic discrimination and school connectedness in Finland. An online questionnaire was completed by 1,827 adolescents (12-19 years of age) from both Finnish and Swedish speaking schools in Western Finland. Adolescents’ family background was categorized as either native, multicultural, or immigrant. Perceived ethnic discrimination was examined according to its source, whether it acted out by peers, by teachers, or by someone else. Adolescents with an immigrant background were found to have higher scores of perceived ethnic discrimination regardless of its source, and lower school connectedness than other groups. Boys had higher scores of perceived ethnic discrimination by peers and by someone else, and they also reported higher school connectedness than girls. There was also a significant interaction effect between immigrant background and student sex, so that girls with a multicultural background experienced higher levels of discrimination by peers and discrimination by someone else than boys with a multicultural background.References
Abubakar, A., van de Vijver, F. J., Mazrui, L., Murugami, M., & Arasa, J. (2014). Connectedness and psychological well-being among adolescents of immigrant background in Kenya. In R. Dimitrova, M. Bender, & F. J. R. Van de Vijver (Eds.), Global perspectives on well-being in immigrant families (pp. 95‒114). New York, NY: Springer. https://doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9129-3
Assari, S., & Caldwell, C. (2017). Darker skin tone increases perceived discrimination among male but not female Caribbean black youth. Children, 4:107. https://doi.org/10.3390/children4120107
Assari, S., Gibbons, F., & Simons, R. (2018). Perceived discrimination among black youth: an 18-year longitudinal study. Behavioral Sciences, 8:44. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs8050044
Balfanz, R., Herzog, L., & Mac Iver, D. J. (2007). Preventing student disengagement and keeping students on the graduation path in urban middle-grades schools: Early identification and effective interventions. Educational Psychologist, 42, 223‒235. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520701621079
Benner, A. D., & Graham, S. (2013). The antecedents and consequences of racial/ethnic discrimination during adolescence: Does the source of discrimination matter? Developmental Psychology, 49, 1602‒1613. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0030557
Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant youth: Acculturation, identity, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 55, 303‒332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00256.x
Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Y. H., Breugelmans, S. M., Chasiotis, A., & Sam D. L., 2011, Cross cultural psychology, 3rd ed, New York: Cambridge University Press.
Berry, J. W., & Sabatier, C. (2010). Acculturation, discrimination, and adaptation among second generation immigrant youth in Montreal and Paris. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 34, 191-207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.11.007
Bottiani, J. H., Bradshaw, C. P., & Mendelson, T. (2017). A multilevel examination of racial disparities in high school discipline: Black and white adolescents’ perceived equity, school belonging, and adjustment problems. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109, 532‒545. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/edu0000155
Bronfenbrenner, U., (2006). The ecology of developmental processes. In W. Demon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of Child Psychology: Volume 1, Theoretical models of human development (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human development. In T. N. Postlethwaite & T. Husen (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 568–587). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
Capps, R., Fix, M., Ost, J., Reardon-Anderson, J., Passel, J. (2005). The health and well-being of young children of immigrants. Urban Institute. http://webarchive.urban.org/UploadedPDF/311139_ChildrenImmigrants.pdf
Cheng, S., & Klugman, J. (2010). School racial composition and biracial adolescents' school attachment. The Sociological Quarterly, 51, 150‒178. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.2009.01166.x
Chiu, M. M., Pong, S. L., Mori, I., & Chow, B. W. Y. (2012). Immigrant students’ emotional and cognitive engagement at school: A multilevel analysis of students in 41 countries. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 1409‒1425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9763-x
Contrada, R. J., Ashmore, R. D., Gary, M. L., Coups, E., Egeth, J. D., Sewell, A., … Chasse, V. (2001). Measures of ethnicityâ€related stress: Psychometric properties, ethnic group differences, and associations with wellâ€being 1. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 1775‒1820. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb00205.x
Contrada, R. J., Ashmore, R. D., Gary, M. L., Coups, E., Egeth, J. D., Sewell, A., … Chasse, V. (2000). Ethnicity-Related Sources of Stress and Their Effects on Well-Being. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 136–139. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00078
Cooper, S. M., Brown, C., Metzger, I., Clinton, Y., & Guthrie, B. (2013). Racial discrimination and African American adolescents’ adjustment: Gender variation in family and community social support, promotive and protective factors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 15‒29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9608-y
Delgado, M. Y., Ettekal, A. V., Simpkins, S. D., & Schaefer, D. R. (2016). How do my friends matter? Examining Latino adolescents’ friendships, school belonging, and academic achievement. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 1110‒1125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0341-x
Dimitrova, R., Chasiotis, A., & Van de Vijver, F. (2016). Adjustment outcomes of immigrant children and youth in Europe. European Psychologist, 21, 150‒162. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000246
Dunham, R., & Wilson, G. (2007). Race, within-family social capital, and school dropout: An analysis of Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians. Sociological Spectrum, 27, 207‒221. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732170601123435
Eisenberg, M. E., Neumarkâ€Sztainer, D., & Perry, C. L. (2003). Peer harassment, school connectedness, and academic achievement. Journal of School Health, 73, 311‒316. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2003.tb06588.x
English, D., Lambert, S. F., & Ialongo, N. S. (2014). Longitudinal associations between experienced racial discrimination and depressive symptoms in African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1190‒1196. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0034703
Fall, A. M., & Roberts, G. (2012). High school dropouts: Interactions between social context, self-perceptions, school engagement, and student dropout. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 787‒798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.11.004
Finnish Advisory Board on Research Integrity (2012). Responsible conduct of research and procedures for handling allegations of misconduct in Finland. Helsinki, Finland: Finnish Advisory Board on Research Integrity.
Finnish National Agency for Education (P. Karhu, Ed.) (2018). Key figures on general upper secondary school education in Finland (Reports and surveys 2018:13). https://www.oph.fi/english/publications/2018/key_figures_on_general_upper_secondary_education_in_finland
Gil, A. G., Wagner, E. F., & Vega, W. A. (2000). Acculturation, familism, and alcohol use among Latino adolescent males: Longitudinal relations. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 443‒458. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6629(200007)28:4%3C443::AID-JCOP6%3E3.0.CO;2-A
Gregory, A., & Weinstein, R. S. (2008). The discipline gap and African Americans: Defiance or cooperation in the high school classroom. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 455‒475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2007.09.001
Herman, M. (2004). Forced to choose: Some determinants of racial identification in multiracial adolescents. Child Development, 75, 730‒748. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00703.x
Hernandez, D. J. (2004). Demographic change and the life circumstances of immigrant families. The Future of Children 14, 17‒47. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1602792
Hjern, A., Rajmil, L., Bergström, M., Berlin, M., Gustafsson, P. A., & Modin, B. (2013). Migrant density and well-being‒A national school survey of 15-year-olds in Sweden. European Journal of Public Health, 23, 823‒828. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckt106
Huynh, V. W., & Fuligni, A. J. (2010). Discrimination hurts: The academic, psychological, and physical wellâ€being of adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 916‒941. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00670.x
Jaakkola, M., (2009). Maahanmuuttajat suomalaisten näkökulmasta. Asennemuutokset 1997-2007. Helsinki, Finland: City of Helsinki Urban Facts Research Series. https://www.hel.fi/hel2/Tietokeskus/julkaisut/pdf/09_02_19_Tutkimus_Jaakkola.pdf
Jackson, M. I., Kiernan, K., & McLanahan, S. (2012). Immigrant–native differences in child health: Does maternal education narrow or widen the gap?. Child Development, 83, 1501‒1509. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01811.
Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., Liebkind, K., Horenczyk, G., & Schmitz, P. (2003). The interactive nature of acculturation: Perceived discrimination, acculturation attitudes and stress among young ethnic repatriates in Finland, Israel and Germany. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 79‒97. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00061-5
Joyce, H. D., & Early, T. J. (2014). The impact of school connectedness and teacher support on depressive symptoms in adolescents: A multilevel analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 39, 101‒107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.02.005
Liebkind, K., Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., & Solheim, E. (2004). Cultural identity, perceived discrimination, and parental support as determinants of immigrants’ school adjustments: Vietnamese youth in Finland. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 635‒656. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0743558404269279
Liu, D., Yu, X., Wang, Y., Zhang, H., & Ren, G. (2014). The impact of perception of discrimination and sense of belonging on the loneliness of the children of Chinese migrant workers: a structural equation modeling analysis. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 8:52. https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-8-52
Lorenzo-Blanco, E. I., Unger, J. B., Oshri, A., Baezconde-Garbanati, L., & Soto, D. (2016). Profiles of bullying victimization, discrimination, social support, and school safety: Links with Latino/a youth acculturation, gender, depressive symptoms, and cigarette use. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 86, 37‒48. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/ort0000113
McWhirter, E. H., Garcia, E. A., & Bines, D. (2018). Discrimination and other education barriers, school connectedness, and thoughts of dropping out among Latina/o students. Journal of Career Development, 45, 330‒344. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0894845317696807
Myllyniemi, S. (2017). Katse tulevaisuudessa: Nuoriso barometri 2016.(Report No. 56). Opetus- ja kulttuuriministeriö, Valtion nuorisoneuvosto, Nuorisotutkimusseura ja tekijät. https://tietoanuorista.fi/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Nuorisobarometri_2016_WEB.pdf
Nadal, K. L. (2011). The Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS): Construction, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 470‒480. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0025193
Niehaus, K., Irvin M.J., Rogelberg, S. (2016). School connectedness and valuing as predictors of high school completion and postsecondary attendance among Latino youth. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 44, 54‒67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.02.003
Nshom, E., & Croucher, S. (2017). Perceived threat and prejudice towards immigrants in Finland: A study among early, middle, and late Finnish adolescents. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 10, 309‒323. https://doi.org/10.1080/17513057.2017.1312489
OECD. (2018). Working together: Skills and labour market integration of immigrants and their children in Finland, Paris, France: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264305250-en
OECD. (2017). PISA 2015 results (Volume III): Students well-being. Retrived from: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/pisa-2015-results-volume-iii/students-sense-of-belonging-by-immigrant-background_9789264273856-table125-en
Oldfield, J., Humphrey, N., & Hebron, J. (2016). The role of parental and peer attachment relationships and school connectedness in predicting adolescent mental health outcomes. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 21, 21‒29. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12108
Özdemir, M., & Bayram Özdemir, S. (2017). The role of school context in adolescents’ attitudes towards immigrants and inter-ethnic friendships. In: E. Lundberg (Ed.), The mechanisms of tolerance: An anthology. Stockholm: The Living History Forum7.
Özdemir, S. B., & Stattin, H. (2014). Why and when is ethnic harassment a risk for immigrant adolescents’ school adjustment? Understanding the processes and conditions. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 1252‒1265. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-0038-y
Pachter, L. M., Bernstein, B. A., Szalacha, L. A., & Coll, C. G. (2010). Perceived racism and discrimination in children and youths: An exploratory study. Health & Social Work, 35, 61‒69. https://doi.org/10.1093/hsw/35.1.61
Plenty, S., & Jonsson J. O. (2017). Social exclusion among peers: The role of immigrant status and classroom immigrant density. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 46, 1275‒1288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-016-0564-5
Spencer, M. B., Dupree, D., & Hartmann, T. (1997). A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 817–833. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579497001454
Statistics Finland (2019). Number of persons with foreign background exceeded 400,000. http://www.stat.fi/til/vaerak/2018/02/vaerak_2018_02_2019-06-19_tie_001_en.html
Strohmeier, D., Kärnä, A., & Salmivalli, C. (2011). Intrapersonal and interpersonal risk factors for peer victimization in immigrant youth in Finland. Developmental Psychology, 47, 248‒258. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0020785
Taguma, M., Shewbridge, C., Huttowa, J., & Hoffman, N. (2009). OECD reviews of migrant education: Norway 2009. https://www.oecd.org/education/school/43723539.pdf
Uslu, F., & Gizir, S. (2017). School belonging of adolescents: The role of teacher-student relationships, peer relationships and family involvement. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 17, 63‒82. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2017.1.0104
Vedder, P. H., & Horenczyk, G. (2006). Acculturation and the school. In D. L. Sam & J. W. Berry (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of acculturation psychology (pp. 419‒438). New York: Cambridge University Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1017/CBO9780511489891.031
Wang, M. T., & Fredricks, J. A. (2014). The reciprocal links between school engagement, youth problem behaviors, and school dropout during adolescence. Child Development, 85, 722‒737. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12138
Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., McMorris, B. J., Chen, X., & Stubben, J. D. (2001). Perceived discrimination and early substance abuse among American Indian children. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42, 405‒424. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3090187
Wikström, K., Haikkola, L., & Laatikainen, T. (2014). Maahanmuuttajataustaisten nuorten terveys ja hyvinvointi: Tutkimus pääkaupunkiseudun somali-ja kurditaustaisista nuorista. http://www.julkari.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/116199/URN_ISBN_978-952-302-212-6.pdf?sequence=1
Wong, C. A., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. (2003). The influence of ethnic discrimination and ethnic identification on African American adolescents' school and socioemotional adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71, 1197‒1232. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.7106012
Zacheus, T., Kalalahti, M., Varjo, J., Saarinen, M., Jahnukainen, M., Mäkelä, M. L., & Kivirauma, J. (2019). Discrimination, harassment and racism in Finnish lower secondary schools. Nordic Journal of Migration Research, 9, 81‒98. https://doi.org/10.2478/njmr-2019-0004
